Modern-Day Burn Resuscitation: Moving Beyond the Parkland Formula

Authors: Mary Ellen Billington, MD (EM Resident Physician, Parkland Memorial Hospital, Dallas, TX) and Brett D. Arnoldo, MD, FACS (Associate Professor, Department of Surgery, Parkland Memorial Hospital, Dallas, TX) // Edited by: Erica Simon, DO, MHA (@E_M_Simon) & Alex Koyfman, MD (@EMHighAK, EM Attending Physician, UTSW Medical Center / Parkland Memorial Hospital)

In the midst of a busy ED shift, a patient arrives by EMS. You immediately recognize the distinctive odor: a dry and unfortunately singed smell lingers in the air. As the catecholamines surge, you recognize your own tachycardia: it’s time to see a burn victim.

Thoughts race through your mind: What’s that  formula for fluid resuscitation? What rate do I use for the lactated ringers? What are the criteria that determine the need for burn center care? Where is my co-oximetry equipment?

Step away from your MDCalc – we’re going to calm that scorching stress-induced acid reflux with an update on the emergency department management of burns.

Mental Road Map

To adequately manage the burn victim, the emergency medicine physician must remember three key guidelines:

  1. The burn patient is a special type of trauma patient.
  2. The burn patient may be a toxicological patient.
  3. The burn patient requires comprehensive evaluation and management, and is best served by transferring to a burn center in accordance with ABA (American Burn Association) guidelines.

The Burn Patient is a Special Type of Trauma Patient

Begin with the ABCs: Is the airway intact? Is there concern that the airway may be lost? What is the patient’s projected course?

  • If the airway is not protected: intubate.
  • Signs of impending airway compromise include: stridor, wheezing, subjective dyspnea, and a hoarse voice.1
    • Severe burns to the lower face and neck may develop significant edema predisposing to airway obstruction.1
    • A history of the inhalation of superheated air, or steam in a confined space, is concerning for severe bronchial injury.1
    • Keep in mind that perioral burns and singed nasal hairs mandate an examination of the oropharynx for mucosal injury, however, these findings alone do not indicate airway involvement.2
    • Smoke inhalation victims may develop delayed respiratory failure: when in doubt, admit for observation and bronchoscopy.3
  • Projected Course: patients with burns involving >60% total body surface area (TBSA) tend to deteriorate rapidly: consider immediate intubation.1
  • Keep in mind that patients possessing burns involving a lower percentage of TBSA (e.g. < 40%), may require intubation if significant volume resuscitation is required.1
  • If the airway is intact, and the history and physical are not consistent with inhalational injury, it is prudent to administer oxygen by nasal cannula or face mask.1

Aside from airway concerns, complete your primary and secondary surveys and treat life-threatening emergencies as appropriate:

  • Consider a cervical collar if the mechanism is appropriate (blast injuries), or when doubt surrounds the circumstances of the injury.
  • Remember that full-thickness burns to the chest wall may lead to mechanical restriction of ventilation: consider escharotomy.1,3
    • Note: It is advised that escharotomies be performed in cooperation with a burn surgeon.4

In terms of fluid resuscitation:2

  • Burns <15% TBSA generaly require only PO fluid resuscitation.
  • Obtain large bore PIV access: two sites recommended for burns >40% TBSA.
  • Despite popular belief, IV access may be obtained through burned skin; ensure that lines are  well secured.
  • Obtain IO access if unable to obtain IV access.
  • Central lines equipped with invasive monitoring devices may provide useful volume-status metrics to guide resuscitation.

The What, When, and How Much of Fluids

  • In order to determine the volume of fluid resuscitation required for a burn patient, the Rule of Nines for adults and the Lund and Browder chart for children should be utilized (Figures 1 and 2 below).1,2
  • Remember: do not include first degree burns in the calculation of % TBSA.2
  • The over-estimation of % TBSA may result in hypervolemia, predisposing to a number of dangerous conditions:4
    • abdominal compartment syndrome
    • extremity compartment syndrome(s)
    • intraocular compartment syndrome
    • pleural effusions
Figure 1. Rule of Nines (Reference 5)
Figure 1. Rule of Nines (Reference 5)
Figure 2. Lund & Browder Chart (Reference 5)
Figure 2. Lund & Browder Chart (Reference 5)

Fluid Formulas:

  • The Parkland (or Baxter) Formula is possibly the most well-known and widely utilized formula:
    • 4 mL x weight in kg x % TBSA (up to 50%) = total volume of lactated ringers (LR) required for resuscitation
      • Half of the total volume is administered over the first 8 hrs post injury; the remaining, over the following 16 hours.
    • It is important to note that this formula is not universally accepted. Current trends in burn management literature emphasize a clinical assessment of volume status as essential in guiding fluid administration.1,2 Early consultation with a burn center is advised.1,2
  • The Advanced Burn Life Support (ABLS) handbook recommends the following for fluid resuscitation:
    • 2-4mL x kg body weight x % TBSA burn = volume of LR required for adult resuscitation (formula adjusted to 3-4mL x kg body weight x % TBSA burn for pediatric patients).6
      • Half of the total resuscitation volume is given over the first 8 hours, with administration of the remaining half titrated to patient response (urine output of 0.5mL/kg/hr for adults and 1mL/kg/hr for children).6
  • Inhalation injuries most commonly increase fluid resuscitation requirements.2
  • All resuscitation measures should be guided by perfusion pressure and urine output:4
    • Target a MAP of 60 mmHg, and urine output of 0.5-1.0ml/kg/hr for adults and 1-1.5mL/kg/h for pediatric patients.
    • The placement of a radial or femoral catheter is advised.4
    • Heart rate, pulse pressure, capillary refill, and mental status should also be assessed when determining resuscitation adequacy.
    • Additional markers, i.e. – lactate, base deficit, intestinal mucosal pH, and pulmonary arterial catheters are of limited use, and demonstrate varied mortality benefit.

We saw that the Parkland Formula and ABLS handbook recommend the use of LR, but are there recommendations regarding the use of other fluids for burn resuscitation?

  • Generally crystalloid solutions should be infused during the initial 18-24 hrs of resuscitation.1,4
  • It is recommended that 5% dextrose be added to maintenance fluids for pediatric patients weighing < 20kg.1
  • Hypertonic solutions tend to decrease initial resuscitation volumes, but are associated with increased renal failure and death, and therefore should be avoided.2,4,8
  • Colloid administration is a topic of debate.
    • Extensive heterogeneity exists regarding the recommendation for albumin utilization:
      1. Previous studies assessing albumin delivery in burn resuscitation (the most recent >15 years ago) demonstrated no statistically significantly improvement in patient outcomes.3  Today, however, a number of burn experts argue the value of albumin administration in the post capillary leak time frame (>18-24 hours post injury)given it’s ability to decrease third spacing.Further large scale, randomized control trials are needed.3
    • Blood transfusion is considered immunosuppressive, and is associated with increased mortality in burn patients. Blood products should be withheld unless there is an apparent physiologic need.2,4

The Burn Patient May be a Toxicological Patient

 In the evaluation of a burn patient, be sure to obtain a thorough history from EMS or from the patient. Victims of enclosed-space fires may be exposed to toxic levels of carbon monoxide and cyanide:

Your patient is the victim of an apartment fire. He has what appears to be red-tinged skin in areas absent burn; he is neurologically depressed, and suddenly decompensates into cardiac arrest. What toxic exposure do you suspect? How do you confirm your diagnosis? How will you treat your patient?

  • Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning may manifest with persistent neurologic symptoms or even as cardiac arrest. Despite the board-style vignette stated above, cherry-red skin is a neither sensitive nor specific finding.3
  • If you suspect CO poisoning, order a carboxyhemoglobin level.1 In a patient with CO poisoning, pulse oximetry readings will be falsely normal, and the PaO2 and % hemoglobin saturation on ABG will be unaffected.1
  • How do you use a carboxyhemoglobin level? Subtract the carboxyhemoglobin level from the pulse oximetry level to determine true oxygen saturation.
    • Interpreting levels:3
      • Non-smokers: up to 1% normal
      • Smokers: 4-6% common
      • Any reading >10% = concern for significant exposure
    • To treat the toxic exposure administer 100% O2. Hyperbaric oxygen may be also be considered.2

Your burn patient, despite initial resuscitative efforts, maintains a persistent lactic acidosis and develops S-T elevation on EKG. What toxic exposure do you suspect? How do you treat your patient? 

  • The spectrum of the clinical presentation of cyanide poisoning varies from mydriasis,  to tachypnea and central apnea, to hypotension, to loss of consciousness and seizures.1
  • If concerned for cyanide toxicity, initiate 100% O2 therapy and administer hydroxocobalamin, with consideration for sodium thiosulfate (slower mechanism of action).1 Note: The commercially available cyanokit contains hydroxycobalamin.
  • Be sure to rule out other etiologies of lactic acidosis: under-resuscitation, CO poisoning, or missed traumatic injury.2

Additional Resuscitative Therapies and Considerations for Transfer

 What other resuscitative treatments may be indicated? When should you transfer a burn patient to a designated burn center?

  • In the evaluation of a burn patient, screening laboratory studies are appropriate.
    • Consider: ABG and CXR; cardiac enzymes, and a carboxyhemoglobin level.1,3
  • Administer a tetanus vaccination in the emergency department if indicated.
  • Control pain and administer anxiolytics as required.
  • Monitor resuscitation: bedside ultrasound is useful in the assessment of intravascular volume. Place a foley catheter or perform suprapubic cystotomy to monitor urine output and reduce the risk of abdominal compartment syndrome.3
  • Avoid hypothermia: warm the resuscitation room, administer warm inspired air, apply warm blankets, infuse warmed fluids, and cover wounds with clean dry sheets.2,4
  • Treat inhalation injury as indicated: intubate, order aggressive pulmonary toilet + bronchodilator (albuterol) +/- N-acetylcysteine, aerosolized heparin, aerosolized TPA, recombinant human antithrombin, surfactant, inhaled NO, or ECMO if required (the majority of this will be addressed in an ICU setting).2
  • Consider escharotomy or lateral canthotomy if concern for hypoventilation or compartment syndromes.4
  • After initial stabilization, follow the American Burn Association (ABA) Guidelines for the transfer of patients to designated burn centers. Suggested criteria for transfer can be found on the ABA webpage: http://www.ameriburn.org/BurnCenterReferralCriteria.pdf

A few words on steroids and antibiotics – Today there is no data to support steroid administration in the setting of inhalation injury.2 Prophylactic antibiotics are also withheld in the setting of burn injuries as several studies have demonstrated their administration as promoting systemic fungal infection.2

Mortality – The Baux Score (% TBSA + Age) has historically been utilized as a predictor of mortality.2

Summary

In treating a burn patient:

  1. Follow ATLS guidelines in the initial evaluation and resuscitation of the burn patient, with special attention to unique airway considerations.
  2. Evaluate the patient for signs of toxic exposures, particularly carbon monoxide and cyanide.
  3. The burn patient requires comprehensive care. Follow ABA guidelines when considering transfer.

References

  1. DeKoning E. Thermal Burns. In: Tintinalli JE, Stapczynski J, Ma O, Yealy DM, Meckler GD, Cline DM. eds. Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 8e. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2016. http://accessmedicine.mhmedical. com.foyer.swmed.edu/content.aspx?bookid=1658&Sectionid=109438787.
  2. Friedstat J, Endorf FW, Gibran NS. Burns. In: Brunicardi F, Andersen DK, Billiar TR, Dunn DL, Hunter JG, Matthews JB, Pollock RE. eds. Schwartz’s Principles of Surgery, 10e. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2014. http://accessmedicine.mhmedical. com.foyer.swmed.edu/content.aspx?bookid=980&Sectionid=59610849.
  3. Drigalla D, Gemmill J. Chapter 45. Burns & Smoke Inhalation. In: Stone C, Humphries RL. eds. CURRENT Diagnosis & Treatment Emergency Medicine, 7e.New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2011.http://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com.foyer.swmed.edu/content.aspx?bookid=385&Sectionid=40357261.
  4. Latenser BA. Critical Care of the Burn Patient. In: Hall JB, Schmidt GA, Kress JP. eds. Principles of Critical Care, 4e. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2015.http://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com. foyer.swmed.edu/content.aspxbookid=1340&Sectionid=80027724.
  5. Remote Primary Health Clinic Manuals. Burns. 2014. Available from: https://rphcm.allette.com.au/publication/cpm/Burns.html
  6. American Burn Association. Advanced Burn Life Support Course Provider Manual. American Burn Association 2007.
  7. Lawrence A1, Faraklas I, Watkins H, Allen A, Cochran A, Morris S, Saffle J. Colloid administration normalizes resuscitation ratio and ameliorates “fluid creep”. J Burn Care Res. 2010 Jan-Feb;31(1):40-7. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181cb8c72. PMID 20061836.
  8. Saffle JI. The phenomenon of “fluid creep” in acute burn resuscitation. J Burn Care Res. 2007 May-Jun;28(3):382-95. PMID 17438489

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